Yang et al. propose a trustworthiness system framework for embodied intelligence with T0 to T5 levels.

Yang et al.'s paper defines trustworthiness of embodied intelligence by sustained safety success, arguing that laboratory task completion rates are insufficient as safety metrics because errors in embodied systems can cause equipment damage or irreversible personal injury. The paper decomposes trustworthiness into a four-layer functional architecture: model layer, system layer, evidence layer, and deployment layer, noting that semantic-physical gaps, action-consequence gaps, and cross-layer non-composability can cause single-layer defenses to fail. The authors also provide a non-normative T0 to T5 scale, from no trustworthy intelligence to maintaining trust under a governed change process, and recommend evaluating systems by four outcome categories: safe success, safe failure, unsafe success, and unsafe failure, while aligning the framework with ISO 21448 (SOTIF) and ISO 10218.